Rise and fall of cities in India

Why in News?

India has undergone five urbanisations evolving from the mercantile Harappan period to the post-independence industrial cities.

What was the first urbanization?

• Indus Valley Urbanization - First urbanisation was under the mercantile Harappans in the north-western part of India.
• Period – 2500 to 1900 BCE
• It was a vast civilisation, spread over a large geography, larger than any of the other contemporaneous ones in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia.
• Indus Valley Civilization Cities
  • Harappa and Mohenjodaro  in present-day Pakistan.
  • Rakhigarhi in Haryana
  • Kalibangan in Rajasthan
  • Dholavira and Lothal in Gujarat.

• Characteristics of Harappan Cities
• Grid Layout - The cities were meticulously planned with a grid layout, featuring wide, intersecting streets with separate entry and exit to control movement.
• Standardized Brick Construction - Buildings were built using standardized bricks in 1:2:4 ratio, suggesting a centralized system of production and distribution.
• Citadels - Many cities had fortified citadels, likely used for defense or administrative purposes.
• Drainage Systems - The cities boasted sophisticated drainage systems, including underground pipes and covered drains, to prevent flooding and maintain sanitation.
• Water Supply Systems - Wells and reservoirs were used to supply water to the city's inhabitants.
• Granaries and Warehouses - Large granaries and warehouses were found, indicating a well-organized system of food storage and distribution.
• Great Bath - Mohenjo-Daro featured a large, rectangular structure known as the Great Bath, possibly used for ritual cleansing or bathing.
• Assembly Hall - Harappa had a large, rectangular building that may have served as an assembly hall or meeting place.
• Trade and Commerce - The cities were involved in extensive trade, with evidence of long-distance trade networks
• Dholavira and Lothal were both significant centers of maritime trade.
• Art and Crafts - The Indus Valley people were skilled artisans, producing a variety of artifacts, including pottery, seals, and jewellery.

What was the second Urbanization?

• Mahajanapadas -  The second urbanisation happened 1,500 years after Harappa.
• Period -  500 BCE
• Aryan Arrival - Around 1500 BCE, the Aryan or Indo-European people came from Southern Russia, through the Oxus, bringing with them horses.
• These were mostly men, intermarrying with the local women, changing the makeup of the local DNA.
• Over time, they moved further east, into the Gangetic Plain.
• Ganga plains established trade relations with the Indus plains and beyond.
• Cities - Taxila, Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kashi, Kaushambi and Ujjain

• Characteristics
• Fortified Cities - Many of these cities were fortified with walls and gates to protect them from attacks.
• Diverse Cultures - Due to their geographical locations, these cities often exhibited diverse cultural influences.
• Centralized Administration -  Magadha's cities were characterized by a centralized administration, with a strong king and a well-organized bureaucracy.
• Religious Centers -  Many of these cities like Kashi were important religious centers, attracting pilgrims and scholars from across the region.
• Mercantile cities - Merchant activity played a pivotal role in shaping the urban landscape of the Mahajanapada and Magadha periods due to expansin of trade networks.
• Trade Route - Cities located on major trade routes, such as Taxila, Pataliputra, and Ujjain, experienced rapid growth due to their strategic positions.
• Toll taxes became important to protect the highways.
• Emergence of New Philosophies - The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was closely intertwined with the growth of trade and mercantile activity.
• Buddhist literatures provided information about the urbanization of this period.
• First Coinage - The first punch-marked coins in India were minted by the Mahajanapadas and merchant guilds of this region.
• Fall of Trade – Around the 5th Century CE, with the fall of Rome , an important trading partner , and the invasion of the Hunas, the merchants lost their importance.
• With the Trade fell, and the Mahajanapadas began to disintegrate.

What was the third urbanization?

• Temple urbanisation - The 3^rd  urbanisation took place as Temple Cities across South India and Southeast Asia.
• Period – 7^th to 12^th Century
• By the 10th Century Chola period, full-blown temple urbanisation emerged.
• Cities – Madurai, Kancheepuram, Thanjavur, Srirangam
• Characteristics
• Temple Center - Temple was the nerve centre of political and economic activity, surrounded by markets, courtiers, and courtesans.
• Spiritual and Cultural Hubs - Temples were centers of spiritual and cultural activities, hosting religious ceremonies, festivals, and educational institutions.
• This attracted scholars, artists, and craftsmen, further contributing to the development of the city.
• Pilgrimage Centers - Temples often served as important pilgrimage sites, attracting devotees and  contributed to the growth of surrounding settlements.
• Rise of Agriculture - These Cities were more agricultural than mercantile.
• After the 4th-5th Century, when export-led mercantile trade fell, agriculture and Agri based activities started gaining prominent economic activity.
• Devadana Lands - Temples often received endowments of land and other resources, which generated income through agriculture, trade, and other economic activities.
• Brahmadeya - Around the time Buddhism was slowly declining and Brahmadeya or donations to Brahmins/temples started emerging.
• Society - These temples had Brahmin priests, Kshatriya patrons, Vaishya merchants, artists, etc.
• Changes in Society - Endogamy flourished and the caste system solidified.

What was the fourth Urbanization?

• Muslim Metropolis - The 4^th  urbanisation is the Muslim Metropolis of Delhi sultanate and Mughal empire.
• Period - 12^th to 17th Century CE.
• According to Abu-l Fazl, in 1594 there were 2837 towns of which 180 were named as larger cities.
• Cities
  • Delhi sultanate – Delhi, Hisar, Hansi, Sirsa, Meerut, and Aligarh.
  • Mughal Cities - Agra , Fatehpur Siki, Lahore, Sikandra, Shahjahanabad

• Characteristics
• It  was primarily agricultural.
• Feudal System -  The courtiers were paid by giving them a share of the village wealth.
• Religious Character -  Sufism, Dargahs (shrines), and Pirs became important.
• The Jama Masjid becomes a central site in these cities.
• Cultural Centers – Lahore, Agra were renowned cultural center under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, known for its poetry, music, and arts.
• Bazaars and Markets - Vibrant bazaars and markets catered to the needs of the population, offering a wide range of goods and services.
• Fusion of Architectural Styles - Mughal architecture often incorporated elements from Persian and Islamic styles, resulting in a unique and distinctive aesthetic.

What was the fifth Urbanization?

• Postcolonial cities – 5^th  urbanisation is the colonial and post-colonial cities.
• Colonial administration had  created a new urban, industrial and imperial landscape.
• Period - 17th Century onwards.
• New Factors -  Forces of international trade, mercantilism and capitalism now came to define the nature of society.
• Colonial Cities
  • British Colonial Cities – Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Shimla
  • French Cities – Pondicherry , Mahe
  • Portuguese Cities – Goa, Diu, Daman
  • Dutch – Masulipatinam
• Characteristics 
• Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of the European.
• The big coastal cities — Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta, Kochi began as fortified settlements of the colonial powers, either the Portuguese or the Dutch or the French or the British.
• European bases - European commercial Companies had set up base in different places early during the Mughal era
  • Portuguese in Panaji in 1510
  • Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605
  • British in Madras in 1639
  • French in Pondicherry  in 1673.
• Trading Centers - With the expansion of commercial activity, towns grew around these trading centres.
• Economic Capitals - After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, expansion of trade made  colonial port cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay rapidly emerged as the new economic capitals.
• Hill Stations – Development hill stations Shima, Ooty were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development.
• Cultural Integration -  Building with Indian and European cultural mix Indo Saracenic style was created.
  • Churches, cathedrals – Bom Basilica in Goa, Santhome Church
  • Administrative buildings –Fort St. George , Fort St. William.

How the cities are developed post-independence?

• Post Independence Cities – Growth of planned cities due to Industrialization and State reorganization.
• Capital Cities – New capital cities were constructed with the emergence of new States during state reorganization.
  • Chandigarh -  Designed  by Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier.
  • Bhubaneswar – It was selected to be the capital of Odisha in 1948 by integrating the temple town into its planning and the needs of modern administration.
  • Gandhinagar – It was formed in 1960 as capital of Gujarat.
• Industrial Cities - With heavy industrialisation, part of India’s Five Year Plans, industrial cities like Bhilai, Jamshedpur, and Rourkela.

Reference

The Indian Express | Rise and fall of cities in India